The Beginning of the Invasion (1975)
In October 1975, as Spain prepared to withdraw from its colony in Western Sahara, Moroccan forces launched a military incursion, occupying the town of Guelta Zemmur in the northeast of the territory with 25,000 soldiers, while Spain withdrew toward Laayoune, Smara, and Dakhla.
Although Madrid had officially reaffirmed its commitment to the principle of self-determination, King Hassan II escalated expansionist ambitions. On 6 November 1975, he launched the so-called “Green March,” in which 350,000 Moroccans were mobilized as a pressure tool to seize the territory. Days later, on 12 November, the Saharan Council—the traditional representative of the Sahrawi people—entrusted the Polisario Front as the sole legitimate representative of the Sahrawi people, before dissolving itself. Yet, on 14 November 1975, Spain signed the Madrid Accords with Morocco and Mauritania, handing over administrative control without transferring sovereignty—an outright violation of international law and United Nations resolutions.
From Liberation to War (1976 – 1991)
On 27 February 1976, the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) was proclaimed in Bir Lehlou, and was immediately recognized by Madagascar the following day, followed by many other states. However, the liberation war soon erupted against Morocco and Mauritania. On 20 February 1976, Moroccan occupation forces committed horrific massacres using napalm and white phosphorus in Tifariti, Guelta Zemmur, and Amgala. On 9 June 1976, Sahrawi leader El-Ouali Mustafa Sayed was martyred during an attack in Nouakchott, which reinforced the resistance spirit. By August 1976, Mohamed Abdelaziz was elected Secretary General of the Polisario and Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council, giving greater organizational depth to the struggle.
Regional and International Shifts
In May 1977, Morocco and Mauritania signed a joint defense agreement, but Polisario retaliated with effective operations, including an attack on Nouakchott in July 1977, after French intervention in support of Mauritania. In July 1978, a coup toppled the Mauritanian president, and by August 1979, Mauritania signed peace with Polisario and renounced its claims to Western Sahara. Morocco quickly moved to occupy the territory evacuated by Mauritania, prompting the UN General Assembly (Resolution 34/37) to condemn Morocco. By the early 1980s, after multiple defeats, Morocco began constructing the Moroccan Wall to protect the “useful triangle” (Laayoune–Smara–Bou Craa), where the population and natural wealth are concentrated.
International Recognition of the Sahrawi Cause (1980 – 1989)
Despite these measures, international legitimacy continued to back Sahrawi rights: in December 1980, Spain recognized the Sahrawi people’s rights and demanded UN resolutions be implemented. At the Nairobi Summit (1981), Hassan II formally agreed to a referendum on self-determination. By 1983, Polisario had liberated nearly 90% of the territory, forcing Hassan II to admit he would accept “whatever results” of the referendum. In 1985, the SADR gained full membership in the Organization of African Unity, prompting Morocco to withdraw. By 1989, more than 74 countries had recognized the SADR, while the UN and OAU pressed forward with a peace plan based on the 1974 Spanish census, affirming the Sahrawi people’s exclusive right to self-determination.
Incomplete Settlement and Ceasefire (1991 – 2020)
In 1991, through UN and OAU mediation, a ceasefire was reached under UN mission MINURSO, with the promise of a referendum on self-determination. For decades, however, Morocco pursued deliberate obstruction by:
• delaying the referendum under pretexts of voter eligibility disputes,
• expanding settlement policies,
• violently suppressing peaceful demonstrations,
• plundering natural resources.
Despite this, the United Nations consistently reaffirmed Western Sahara’s status as a “non-self-governing territory”, and that a referendum remained the only fair solution.
Collapse of the Ceasefire and Resumption of War (2020 – 2025)
On 13 November 2020, the ceasefire collapsed after Moroccan forces entered the Guerguerat buffer zone, provoking Polisario to resume armed struggle. Since then, military clashes have escalated, including airstrikes and drone warfare, with fighting continuing to this day (en.wikipedia.org, cfr.org).
The Current International Scene (2025)
• On 31 October 2024, the UN extended MINURSO’s mandate until 31 October 2025 (en.wikipedia.org).
• Nevertheless, international institutions continue to demand a referendum on self-determination and support the UN framework (en.wikipedia.org).
• In June 2025, the United Kingdom became the third permanent member of the Security Council to back Morocco’s autonomy plan, calling it a “realistic solution” (apnews.com, theguardian.com).
• Kenya (May 2025) and Portugal (July 2025) followed suit in supporting the autonomy plan (en.wikipedia.org).
• In August 2025, former U.S. President Donald Trump reaffirmed his administration’s recognition of Moroccan sovereignty, describing autonomy as “the fair and real basis for resolving the conflict” (reuters.com).
• In a controversial development, Hollywood used Western Sahara as a filming site for the movie The Odyssey, sparking accusations of colonial erasure and normalization of Moroccan occupation (thetimes.co.uk).
• On the humanitarian level, Freedom House documented worsening repression, the withdrawal of civil liberties, forced demographic changes, and systematic violations in the occupied territories (freedomhouse.org).
Conclusion: Occupation Without Legitimacy, and Enduring Resistance
From 1975 until today, the evidence proves:
• Morocco’s entry into Western Sahara was through military invasion, not history nor legality.
• Spain never transferred sovereignty; it merely abandoned administration.
• The Sahrawis proclaimed their state and have consistently demanded self-determination, while the UN and African Union continue to affirm this right.
• International support for Morocco’s autonomy plan does not alter the fact that a referendum is the only just solution.
• Western Sahara is not “part of Morocco,” but rather an occupied homeland, whose people continue their legitimate struggle for independence and full sovereignty.
